Muscle dysmorphia and risk factors in bodybuilders
Abstract
The male audience is increasingly concerned with body image, which can lead to the development of behaviours and eating disorders that are extremely harmful to health. A concern previously noted in athletes, particularly bodybuilders, has also been noted in groups of non-athletes. The search for an increasingly muscular body points to a distortion of reality about oneself that generates major changes in the habits and routine of these individuals to seek the desired result. Thus, the aim of this study was to identify risk factors for the development of the disorder among groups with different frequencies in the practice of bodybuilding. 148 male individuals participated in this study, divided into three groups: sedentary (no physical activity), active (frequency of up to 4 times a week) and very active (more than 5 times a week). Analysis of variance (Kruskal-Wallis) showed significant differences for individuals classified as very active, with greater symptoms of muscle dysmorphia (χ2=30.911, p=0.00), desire to increase body size (χ2=16.924, p=0.000), higher pathological eating attitudes (χ2=12.622, p=0.002) and frequency of body checking behaviors (χ2=46.392, p=0.000), more negative beliefs about the body, greater functional impairment and internalization to a body more muscular in relation to the other two participating groups. The frequency with which individuals practiced weight training seems to be associated with several predisposing factors to muscle dysmorphia and harmful behaviors.
References
-Almeida, M.; e colaboradores. Muscle dysmorphia, body image disturbances and commitment to exercise: A comparison between sedentary and physical active undergraduate men. Journal of Physical Education and Sport. Vol. 19. Núm. 1. 2019. p. 507-513. https://doi.org/10.7752/jpes.2019.01074
-American Psychiatric Association. DSM-5: Manual diagnóstico e estatístico de transtornos mentais. Artmed. 2014.
-Assunção, S.S.M. Dismorfia muscular. Brazilian Journal of Psychiatry. Vol. 24. 2002. p. 80-84. http://dx.doi.org/10.1590/S1516-44462002000700018
-Azevedo, A.P.; Ferreira, A.C.; Silva, P.P.; Caminha, I.D.O.; Freitas, C D. Dismorfia muscular: A busca pelo corpo hiper musculoso. Motricidade. Vol. 8. Núm. 1. 2012. p. 53-66. http://dx.doi.org/10.6063/motricidade.8(1).240
-Barra, J.V.; Silva, W.R.D.; Marôco, J.; Campos, J.A.D.B. Adaptação transcultural e validação do Questionário de Atitudes Socioculturais em Relação à Aparência-4 (SATAQ-4) aplicado a estudantes universitários. Cadernos de Saúde Pública. Vol. 35. 2019. p. e00170218. https://doi.org/10.1590/0102-311X00170218
-Borges, N.J.B.G.; Sicchieri, J.M.F.; Ribeiro, R.P.P.P.; Marchini, J.S.; Santos, J.E. Transtornos alimentares-quadro clínico. Medicina (Ribeirão Preto). Vol. 39. Núm. 3. 2006. p. 340-348.
-Cafri, G.; Olivardia, R.; Thompson, J.K. Symptom characteristics and psychiatric comorbidity among males with muscle dysmorphia. Comprehensive psychiatry. Vol. 49. Núm. 4. 2008. p. 374-379. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.comppsych.2008.01.003
-Calogero, R.M., Thompson, J.K. Gender and body image. In Handbook of gender research in psychology. Springer. New York. 2010. pp. 153-184.
-Carvalho, P.H.B.D.; Conti, M.A.; Ribeiro, M.S.; Amaral, A.C.S.; Ferreira, M.E.C. Avaliação psicométrica do Male Body Checking Questionnaire (MBCQ). Psicologia: Reflexão e Crítica. Vol. 27. Núm. 4. 2014. p. 700-709. https://doi.org/10.1590/1678-7153.201427410
-Carvalho, P.H.B.D.; Filgueiras, J.F.; Neves, C.M.; Coelho, F.D.; Ferreira, M.E.C. Checagem corporal, atitude alimentar inadequada e insatisfação com a imagem corporal de jovens universitários. Jornal Brasileiro de Psiquiatria. Vol. 62. Núm. 2. 2013. p. 108-114. http://dx.doi.org/10.1590/S0047-20852013000200003
-Cash, T.F. The Multidimensional Body-Shape Relations Questionnaire users’ manual, 3ª edição. 2000. Available from the author at: www.body-images.com.
-Damasceno, V.O.; Lima, J.R.P.; Vianna, J.M.; Vianna, V.R.Á.; Novaes, J.S. Tipo físico ideal e satisfação com a imagem corporal de praticantes de caminhada. Revista Brasileira de Medicina do esporte. Vol. 11. Núm. 3. 2005. p. 181-186. https://doi.org/10.1590/S1517-86922005000300006
-Drüge, M.; Rafique, G.; Jäger, A.; Watzke, B. Prevalence of symptoms of body dysmorphic disorder (BDD) and associated features in Swiss military recruits: a self-report survey. BMC psychiatry. Vol. 21. Núm. 1. 2021. p. 1-6. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-021-03288-x
-Duran, S.; Çiçekoğlu, P.; Kaya, E. Relationship between orthorexia nervosa, muscle dysmorphic disorder (bigorexia), and self-confidence levels in male students. Perspectives in Psychiatric Care. Vol. 56. Núm. 4. 2020. p. 878-884. https://doi.org/10.1111/ppc.12505
-Garner, D.; Olmsted, M.; Bohr, Y.; Garfinkel, P. The Eating Attitudes Test: Psychometric features. Psychological medicine. Vol. 12. 1982. p. 871-878.
-Gomes, V.M.G.M.; Compte, E.J.; Almeida, M.; Campos, P.F.; Queiroz, A.C.C.; Pereira, L.F.; Brito, C.J.; Carvalho, P.H.B. Psychometric properties of the Muscle Dysmorphic Disorder Inventory among physically active Brazilian college men. Psychology of Men & Masculinities. Vol. 21. Núm. 4. 2020. p. 622-631. https://doi.org/10.1037/men0000307
-He, J.; Sun, S.; Zickgraf, H.F.; Lin, Z.; Fan, X. Meta-analysis of gender differences in body appreciation. Body Image. Vol. 33. 2020. p. 90-100. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bodyim.2020.02.011
-Hildebrandt, T., Walker, D.C., Alfano, L., Delinsky, S., Bannon, K. Development and validation of a male specific body checking questionnaire. International Journal of Eating Disorders. Vol. 43. Núm. 1. 2010. p. 77-87.
-Jassi, A.; Krebs, G. Body Dysmorphic Disorder: Reflections on the last 25 years. Clinical Child Psychology and Psychiatry. Vol. 26. Núm. 1. 2021. p. 3-7. https://doi.org/10.1177/1359104520984818
-Júnior, I.G.; Silva, J.S.I.; Ferreira, E.F.; Camargos, G.L.; Oliveira, R.A.R. Nível de satisfação com a aparência muscular em alunos de musculação nas academias de Ubá-MG. Revista Brasileira de Nutrição Esportiva. São Paulo. Vol. 12. Núm. 69. 2018. p. 93-99.
-Laus, M.F.; Vales, L.D.; Oliveira, N.G.; Costa, T.M.B.; Almeida, S.S. Brazilian version of the Multidimensional Body-Self Relations Questionnaire-Appearance Scales (MBSRQ-AS): translation and psychometric properties in adults. Eating and Weight Disorders-Studies on Anorexia, Bulimia and Obesity. 2019. p. 1-14. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40519-019-00758-w
-Leit, R.A.; Pope Junior, H.G.; Gray, J.J. Cultural expectations of muscularity in men: The evolution of Playgirl centerfolds. International Journal of eating disorders. Vol. 29. Núm. 1. 2001. p. 90-93.
-Liz, C.M.; Saciloto, P.W.; Dominski, F.H.; Vilarino, G.T. Fatores associados à dismorfia muscular em praticantes de treinamento de força em academias: revisão sistemática. Revista Brasileira de Ciência e Movimento. Vol. 26. Núm. 1. 2018. p. 200-212.
-Mitchell, L.; Murray, S.B.; Cobley, S.; Hackett, D.; Gifford, J.; Capling, L.; O’Connor, H. Muscle dysmorphia symptomatology and associated psychological features in bodybuilders and non-bodybuilder resistance trainers: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Sports Medicine. Vol. 47. Núm. 2. 2017. p. 233-259. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40279-016-0564-3
-Murray, S.B.; e colaboradores. The enigma of male eating disorders: A critical review and synthesis. Clinical Psychology Review. Vol. 57. 2017. p. 1-11. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2017.08.001
-Nunes, M.A.; e colaboradores. Distúrbios da conduta alimentar: considerações sobre o Teste de Atitudes Alimentares (EAT). Rev. ABP-APAL. Vol. 16. Núm. 1. 1994. p. 7-10.
-Okano, G.; Holmes, R.A.; Mu, Z.; Yang, P.; Lin, Z.; Nakai, Y. Disordered eating in Japanese and Chinese female runners, rhythmic gymnasts and gymnasts. International journal of sports medicine. Vol. 26. Núm. 06. 2005. p. 486-491. https://doi.org/10.1055/s-2004-821058
-Ortiz, S. N.; Forrest, L. N.; Smith, A. R. Correlates of suicidal thoughts and attempts in males engaging in muscle dysmorphia or eating disorder symptoms. Journal of Clinical Psychology. Vol. 77. Núm. 4. 2021. p. 1106-1115. https://doi.org/10.1002/jclp.23102
-Phillips, K.A.; Quinn, G.; Stout, R.L. Functional impairment in body dysmorphic disorder: a prospective, follow-up study. Journal of psychiatric research. Vol. 42. Núm. 9. 2008. p. 701-707. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpsychires.2007.07.010
-Pope Junior, H.G.; Gruber, A.J.; Choi, P.; Olivardia, R.; Phillips, K.A. Muscle dysmorphia: An underrecognized form of body dysmorphic disorder. Psychosomatics. Vol. 38. Núm. 6. 1997. p. 548-557.
-Schaefer, L.M.; e colaboradores. Development and validation of the sociocultural attitudes towards appearance questionnaire-4 (SATAQ-4). Psychological Assessment. Vol. 27. Núm. 1. 2015. p. 54. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/a0037917
-Schieber, K.; Kollei, I.; Zwaan, M.; Martin, A. Classification of body dysmorphic disorder-What is the advantage of the new DSM-5 criteria?. Journal of psychosomatic research. Vol. 78. Núm. 3. 2015. p. 223-227.
-Smink, F.R.; Van Hoeken, D.; Hoek, H. W. Epidemiology of eating disorders: incidence, prevalence and mortality rates. Current psychiatry reports. Vol. 14. Núm. 4. 2012. p. 406-414. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11920-012-0282-y
-Ströhle, A. Sports psychiatry: mental health and mental disorders in athletes and exercise treatment of mental disorders. European archives of psychiatry and clinical neuroscience. Vol. 269. Núm. 5. 2019. p. 485-498. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00406-018-0891-5
-Susanto, V.V.M.; Wirawan, D.N.; Griadhi, I.P.A. Predictor of muscle dysmorphia among members of fitness centers in Denpasar City, Bali, Indonesia. Public Health and Preventive Medicine Archive (PHPMA). Vol. 8. Núm. 1. 2020. p. 4-10. https://doi.org/10.15562/phpma.v8i1.234
-Torres, A.R.; Ferrão, Y.A.; Miguel, E.C. Transtorno dismórfico corporal: uma expressão alternativa do transtorno obsessivo-compulsivo?. Brazilian Journal of Psychiatry. Vol. 27. Núm. 2. 2005. p. 95-96. http://dx.doi.org/10.1590/S1516-44462005000200004
Copyright (c) 2022 Pedro Balieiro Theodoro, Marina Garcia Manochio-Pina, Alessandra Costa Pereira Junqueira, Andresa de Toledo Triffoni Melo
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License.
Authors who publish in this journal agree to the following terms:
- Authors retain the copyright and grant the journal the right of first publication, with work simultaneously licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution License BY-NC which allows the sharing of the work with acknowledgment of the authorship of the work and initial publication in this journal.
- Authors are authorized to enter into additional contracts separately for non-exclusive distribution of the version of the work published in this journal (eg, publishing in institutional repository or book chapter), with acknowledgment of authorship and initial publication in this journal.
- Authors are allowed and encouraged to post and distribute their work online (eg, in institutional repositories or on their personal page) at any point before or during the editorial process, as this can bring about productive change as well as increase impact and impact. citation of published work (See The Effect of Free Access).
